Parkinson’s Disease: A Comprehensive Review

Abstract

Parkinson’s disease (PD) is a progressive neurodegenerative disorder and one of the most common movement disorders affecting millions of individuals worldwide. Characterized by the degeneration of dopaminergic neurons in the substantia nigra and the accumulation of α-synuclein-containing Lewy bodies, PD manifests through a combination of motor symptoms, including tremor, rigidity, bradykinesia, and postural instability, as well as a wide range of non-motor symptoms that significantly impact quality of life. The incidence and prevalence of Parkinson’s disease have increased globally over recent decades, largely due to population aging, improved diagnostic capabilities, and environmental and genetic influences. This comprehensive review examines the current understanding of Parkinson’s disease, focusing on its epidemiology, pathophysiology, risk factors, clinical manifestations, diagnostic approaches, and therapeutic strategies. Genetic susceptibility, environmental exposures, oxidative stress, mitochondrial dysfunction, and neuroinflammation are explored as key contributors to disease development and progression. The review also discusses advances in diagnostic techniques, including neuroimaging and biomarker research, which aim to facilitate earlier and more accurate detection. Current treatment modalities, such as pharmacological therapies, surgical interventions, and emerging disease-modifying approaches, are evaluated with respect to their efficacy and limitations. Furthermore, the growing global burden of PD and its associated socioeconomic challenges are highlighted, emphasizing the need for effective public health strategies and continued research. Despite significant progress in understanding the disease, important gaps remain regarding its etiology and long-term management. A multidisciplinary approach integrating clinical care, scientific innovation, and preventive measures is essential to improve patient outcomes and address the increasing impact of Parkinson’s disease on healthcare systems worldwide.

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